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......Figure 2
Distance Attribute and Change in International Trade (%)

Distance Attribute Change in International Trade

Income Level: GDP per capital (% increase) +0.7
Economic Size: GDP (1% increase) +0.8
Physical distance (1% increase) -1.1
Physical size (1% increase)* -0.2
Access to Ocean +50
Common border +80
Common language +200
Common Regional Trading Bloc +330
Colony-Colonizer relationship +900
Common Colonizer +190
Common Polity +300
Common Currency +340

* estimated effects exclude the last four variables in the table

Source: Ghemawat (2001)

The four dimensions of distance are described by Ghemawat (2001) to include those as follows:
(1) Cultural;
(2) Administrative;
(3) Geographic; and
(4) Economic. (Ghemawat, 2001)[xix]

These types of distance are stated by Ghemawat (2001) to have an influence upon a business in various ways
ATTRIBUTES OF CULTURAL DISTANCE
The attributes that work to create distances of culture are stated to include:
(1) Different languages;
(2) Different ethnicities including lack of connective ethnic or social networks;
(3) Different religions; and
(4) Different social norms. (Ghemawat, 2001)[xx]
Cultural differences affect the industries and their products when;
(1) Products have high linguistic content such as television advertising;
(2) Products affect cultural or national identity of consumers as demonstrated by certain foods;

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